Emergence of stable sensory and dynamic temporal representations in the hippocampus during working memory Jiannis Taxidis, Eftychios Pnevmatikakis, Apoorva L Mylavarapu, Jagmeet S Arora, Kian D Samadian, Emily A Hoffberg, Peyman Golshani  Posted on Biorxiv,  November 20, 2018 https://doi.org/10.1101/474510 Note: Below is our review of the Biorxiv preprint article by Taxidis and colleagues, "Emergence of stable sensory and dynamic temporal representations in the hippocampus during working memory." There has recently been an interesting discussion about best practices in open peer review. Accordingly, we decided to reach out to the authors with our review prior to posting online. The authors were extremely receptive and engaged and responded to our review. Below our comments are in plain text and author responses are in bold. We are grateful to the Golshani lab, and in particular Jiannis Taxidis, for engaging in open dialogue. Summary In this manuscript, Taxidis et al. recorded sequential activity in CA1 during a delayed olfactory non-match-to-sample task in mice over multiple days. They describe two populations of cells active during the task. One population, termed “odor-cells”, are active during odor delivery and another, termed “time-cells” are active at specific time intervals in the intervening delay between two odor presentations. They showed that classifiers trained on these cells can reliably decode the presented odor and also the time interval on the delay, suggesting that items might be held in working memory by these cells. They also found that odor cells generally are reactivated more across days than time cells, and that temporal and odor information can be reliably extracted (by Bayesian classifiers) up to 5 days later. In additional experiments, the delay was elongated and the authors found that odor cells generally retained their firing field whereas time cells shifted their fields. Over behavioral training, the number of time cells increased as well as odor decoding and temporal interval decoding fidelity, which all correlated to behavioral performance. On the other hand, the number of odor cells stayed relatively constant. Lastly, mice exposed to a passive version of this task with no memory demand showed far fewer time cells and no change in these metrics over days.  The manuscript is a technical tour de force involving complex behavior, learning data, and sophisticated analyses. The results add valuable knowledge to how the hippocampus produces and maintains neural sequences. Particularly interesting is how these sequences evolve while the mice learn the task. Overall, we are excited about this impressive body of data and believe that it would greatly enhance our understanding of encoding mechanisms in the hippocampus. We have several suggestions, though some may have been addressed in the supplemental figures, which we were unable access through the preprint servers.

It has been previously hypothesised that nest predation is higher at forest edges. This has important conservation implications for the increasingly fragmented U.K. climax community. I aimed to test the generality of this edge effect in a mixed deciduous forest fragment which borders open grassland. Artificial nests containing a combination of quail and plasticine eggs were used, at ground and arboreal levels. I found an overall edge effect on nest predation rates, however this effect was not specifically seen in ground nests. Ground nests experienced significantly higher levels of predation than arboreal nests. I suggest this edge effect is due in part to the steep productivity gradient over the ecotone.

Myrbo, A. Yacobucci, P. Lundgren, L., Loeffler, S., and Kirakosian, K. (2018) Diversity and Inclusion: Creating an Equitable Future. EarthRates, Minneapolis, MN. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xW041p44MoXSPmvNLcaBw1UtW4SkIi55/view 

Introduction & Motivation Indications of extant or extinct life in the Martian shallow subsurface can be preserved alongside the evaporitic mineral record within sites where dried ancient lake systems are observed. Biological chemical markers (biomarkers) lose molecular stability over time, and detections of these over geologic time present challenges to biogenic validation. Agnostic biomarkers and the preservation of those in-situ molecules can be aided by biological feedback to ecological stresses that have been interpreted throughout the late Noachian/early Hesperian \cite{Ehlmann_2014,Murchie_2009}. Global desiccation and surface wide UV exposure are the major obstacles to in-situ biological preservation in the shallow crust \cite{Cockell_2000}. Burial of sedimentary material from early Hesperian aqueous sites can provide significant protection from these damaging effects. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the biological feedback from microbial communities preserved within Martian analogue mineralogy. Furthermore, we explore how biosignature preservation pathways can outlast the original biology in slow-changing evaporite mineral records. Geobiological Preservation & TerrestrialBiological Adaptation: Our continued focus is evaporating and dried terrestrial lakebeds \cite{Baxter_2018} since that has proven to be ideal for modern and older biogenic preservation (Perl in prep. 2019). Mineral-microbe interactions can produce nutrients and sustained μm-scale environments where nutrient cycling and metabolic processes continue to produce useful proteins that combat ecological stresses found in measured OTUs from amplification of 16S rRNA (Figure \ref{461273}). Stated differently, molecular adaptations from surviving bacteria allow for later generations to better utilize their environments thereby showing significant similarities between ancient and younger prokaryotes \cite{Maughan_2002}. On Earth these similarities can yield to difficulty between relative age dating of bacteria and ruling out “modern” contamination of older mineral samples. Sedimentological relative dating of minerals can greatly assist with regard to preservation of biological material. However continued metabolic processes in preserved settings will lead to taxa differences (via neighbor joining clustering \cite{Saitou1987} when compared to the non-preserved environment. Hence, the need for proper  baseline environmental controls and understanding of contamination either from younger fluids or rock and mineral fracture. Early Peptide ChainsIf an independent origin of life on Mars and accompanying evolution pathways existed, the earliest evolved simple polypeptides may not have had the capacity for adaptation in the timeframe of climate change on Mars. Biochemically though, the very existence of these polypeptides may have been enough to provide feedback to ecological stresses. The timelines of C,H,O,N,P,S, a solvent (water), and environmental conditions overlapping would be the indicator of the duration of habitability. This duration would parallel the adaptability of organisms and the synthesis of more complex peptide chains leading to a greater ability to adapt to the changing Martian surface over geologic time. 

by Salvatore Bongarzone and Verena Pichler

Saortua MarbunSekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Triatma MulyaDate Reviewed: December 13, 2018 saortuam@gmail.com | http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1521-7694 The growth of online education prompts a need for qualitative research about student learning outcomes and teaching methodologies. It also requires the production of specific educational material that is consonant with this educational medium. In addition, practical advice for online educational methods is warranted. This book is a collection of articles that address a range of concerns within online education. The authors do a good job in the critical assessment of the current possibilities that online education provides. It also invites readers to engage in complex discussions about online education in the future. Creativity and Critique in Online Learning is divided into two parts. The first part is concerned with teaching practices. In particular, it examines available online teaching instruments and places online education in a broader context. This section of the book contributes  a detailed analysis of online forums, discusses ways to make online teams work effectively, and explores how popular social networks, such as Facebook, contribute to informal learning. It also discusses what role multisensory learning has in online space, how to use all the senses in online education, as well as how to nurture creativity and critical assessment. This section is of interest to teachers and students alike because it looks at practical aspects of online education and gives useful advice on how to use them productively.The second part of the book focuses on particular online teaching challenges and how to effectively engage them. Online academic cheating, its growth, and various ways to fight this phenomenon are addressed. In addition, it provides help for how to build successful relationships, instill values, and cherish identity in the online teaching community. This section also takes a closer look at massive open online courses and their drawbacks, both explicit and implicit. One of the most interesting articles in this part is “The Move to Online Teaching: A Head of Department’s Perspective” by Diane Preston. This chapter invites readers to examine online education through the eyes of an experienced educator who is concerned about both the teaching process and institutional concerns.Overall, Creativity and Critique in Online Learning is recommended for a broad audience of educators. It contains useful information for teachers who are currently involved in online teaching, scholars, and policymakers in online education, as well as teachers practicing a traditional form of education and looking for interesting and innovative ways to make their subjects more appealing to contemporary students. One of the main pros of this book is that it does not try to present online education as a modern teaching panacea or the only choice for education in the future. On the contrary, the book presents online teaching in an unbiased manner. While it certainly praises the advantages and possibilities online education has for all participants of the teaching process, it also reveals existing flaws and addresses specific dangers of online education.

Saortua MarbunSekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Triatma MulyaDate Reviewed: January 18, 2019 Globalization directly affects all spheres of human activity. Higher education is no exception. Teachers are encouraged to engage emerging technologies and devices in the practice of their teaching with the hope of advancing student learning. The popularity of distance learning is one example of globalization’s reach. Anyone with an Internet connection can pursue higher education. Boundaries and barriers to education are easily crossed through Internet technology. Cooperation across international higher educational boundaries fosters new cooperation among faculty and raises questions about what connotes learning in diverse cultural contexts. Supporting Multiculturalism in Open and Distance Learning Spaces by Elif Toprak and Evrim Genc Kumtepe provides a detailed overview of contemporary cultural issues and complexities in distance education. The book helps teachers, researchers, scholars, and policymakers approach global education from a variety of cultural perspectives.The book is divided into three sections. Section 1, “Cultural Issues in Management and Global Distance Education,” describes the practical experience the authors gained when working in open or distance education environments. For example, this section covers such topics as the influence of gender on educational policies, the role of quality assurance, and the relationship between cultural perspectives and efficient distance learning. Section 2, “Cultural Issues in Theory and Technology,” looks at close cooperation between education, culture, and technology, starting from the rise of the modern digital era to contemporary contexts. It emphasizes how important it is for the educators to “effectively internalize the premodern, modern, and postmodern eras” (1) or risk either losing a necessary contact with their students or misjudging their conduct and aspirations. The important role of virtual culture and culturally-sensitive instructional design principles is foregrounded in Section 3, “Cultural Issues in Instructional Design and Communication.” For example, “Culturally Sensitive Instructional Design Principles for Online Learning Environments,” explores different components of culture in the learning space, analyzes Hofstede’s Theory of Cultural Dimensions, and evaluates other cultural frameworks and their application in distance learning.Supporting Multiculturalism in Open and Distance Learning Spaces is organized to share experiences and find efficient ways to nurture multiculturalism in learning environments. The book will interest both practitioners and scholars as it contains useful information on theoretical approaches to open and distance learning spaces, analysis of relevant studies, and practical advice on how to utilize various aspects of global education. The three sections with their specific foci enable readers to quickly surf the book without having to read every chapter. Each section contains a detailed reference list of literature, which is also an essential benefit of the book.Publish VersionBook Review: Supporting Multiculturalism in Open and Distance Learning Spaces Edited by Elif Toprak and Evrim Genc Kumtepe. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2018. (xviii+1-381 pages, E-book. EISBN13: 9781522530770. $156,00) doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-3076-3. | https://www.wabashcenter.wabash.edu/resources/book-reviews/ | https://www.wabashcenter.wabash.edu/print-book-review-as-pdf/?id=212692 | 

We will finish our discussion by the some words on quantum simulation and quantum computation.

[  Child Growth Predicts Brain Functional Connectivity and Future Cognitive Outcomes in Urban Bangladeshi Children Exposed to Early Adversities ]  [Wanze Xie, Sarah K. Jensen, Mark Wade, Swapna Kumar, Alissa Westerlund, Shahria H. Kakon, Rashidul Haque, William A. Petri, Charles A. Nelson, 22 Oct 2018, version #1, biorxiv][ 10.1101/447722 ]PREreview GuidelinesOverview and take-home messages:

The growth of tourism in Bali has brought a variety of positive results for the island, creating jobs for the local community and generating revenue for the development of public facilities. At the same time, however, the virtually unrestricted growth of tourism has put additional pressures on the island’s precious ecosystem and the local community’s spiritual sentiments. The ongoing Benoa Bay reclamation project is just one example of how tourism can cause problems for the local community. Given the problem, this article is a modest academic attempt to deconstruct and analyze the debates around the Benoa Bay reclamation project. Crosschecking the initial research findings with secondary research, this article argues ultimately that the local community rejects the reclamation project because it jeopardizes the bay’s ecosystem, encroaches on the religious sentiments of the people, and diminishes any decision-making power of the local people.

We have performed a large-scale evaluation of current computational methods, including conventional small-molecule force fields, semiempirical, density functional, ab initio electronic structure methods, and current machine learning (ML) techniques to evaluate relative single-point energies. Using up to 10 local minima geometries across ~700 molecules, each optimized by B3LYP-D3BJ with single-point DLPNO-CCSD(T) triple-zeta energies, we consider over 6,500 single points to compare the correlation between different methods for both relative energies and ordered rankings of minima. We find promise from current ML methods and recommend methods at each tier of the accuracy-time tradeoff, particularly the recent GFN2 semiempirical method, the B97-3c density functional approximation, and RI-MP2 for accurate conformer energies. The ANI family of ML methods shows promise, particularly the ANI-1ccx variant trained in part on coupled-cluster energies. Multiple methods suggest continued improvements should be expected in both performance and accuracy.

A spatial code in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleusVincent Hok, Pierre-Yves Jacob, Pierrick Bordiga, Bruno Truchet,  Bruno Poucet, Etienne Save doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/473520Version posted on Biorxiv: 11/19/18In the current work, Hok et al. report the existence of spatial receptive fields in the dLGN of rats that are similar in nature to HPC place fields. The authors demonstrate that dLGN place fields, which make up approximately 30% of extracellularly recorded dLGN neurons, are less stable and more variable (on a pass by pass basis) than their HPC counterparts. Further, the authors show theta oscillations in the dLGN local field potential and the presence of individual dLGN neurons that have theta rhythmic spiking. The authors report that, unlike CA3 neurons, most dLGN neurons do not exhibit theta phase precession suggesting that the dLGN spatial code does not carry sequential information about the animal’s current, past, or future trajectories. Finally, Hok and colleagues show that a sub-population of dLGN neurons can be modulated by visual stimulation but that this population does not overlap with neurons that exhibit place fields. Interestingly, dLGN place fields are insensitive to the presence or absence of visual information (as determined by similarity in responses in recordings from light vs. dark conditions) but remap when the color of the environment is altered (from all white to all black).  By and large the results are robust and the reported findings will be of interest to researchers considering interactions between different forms of neural spatial representations and visual information. Further, the observation of spatial receptive fields in the dLGN raises important questions about fundamentals of visual processing. We enjoyed the manuscript and have the following suggestions for the authors.Major suggestions: • There is little discussion about dLGN visual sensitivity in the rat despite there being extensive literature on the subject. There is known retinotopy in dLGN (see for example, Montero et al. 1968). How, if at all, does this relate to the spatial response properties of dLGN neurons? For example, is there any correspondence between neurons that would be sensitive to the lower half of the visual field and remapping in the light vs. dark arena conditions? A similar question could be raised regarding the object sensitive sub-population. The authors should attempt to address the relationship between their observations and visual sensitivity of dLGN in more detail. • The object sensitive sub-population is intriguing, but the details concerning this finding are ambiguous. It is mentioned briefly in the main manuscript but the percentage of neurons exhibiting this tendency is unclear, even when examining the extended data concerning this observation. As a result, the reader is left a bit distracted by this information, especially when considering that object sensitive neurons are not place cells. The authors should consider presenting this component of the manuscript in greater detail. • The visual stimulation experiment is posed as a control for determining that dLGN place cells were indeed recorded in a visually sensitive area (dLGN), but this experiment was not conducted for CA3 neurons. How can we know for certain that the visual stimulation protocol wouldn’t have elicited modulation in CA3 neurons as well, thus rendering this component of the study inconclusive? • Tissue can often become displaced for extended periods of time when moving tetrodes along the D/V axis. How confident are the authors in the correspondence between their tetrode turning records and final tetrode placement? The waveform related analyses are pretty convincing and seems to cluster nicely into two groups, but waveform shape is not a definitive metric for determining the location of a recorded neuron. Is it possible to record from dLGN without moving electrodes through the hippocampus first? It would be helpful if the authors could provide more histology so readers can examine for themselves how displaced CA3 tissue was. • It seems that LFPs were primarily referenced to another tetrode. Instead, LFPs should be referenced against an electrode outside of either the hippocampus or dLGN such as a skull screw above the cerebellum. Because of the current referencing scheme and many other factors, theta oscillations recorded in the dLGN could be explained by volume conduction yet this is not considered. These issues may be of great importance to the theta phase precession analysis. Did the authors attempt to look at phase precession for dLGN place cells against both HPC LFPs as well as dLGN LFPs? If not, this would be an important analysis to consider. • No power spectral density plots are shown for theta oscillations in CA3 and dLGN. It would be interesting to see if the dLGN theta peak in the power spectrum is broader compared to CA3, which might explain the higher theta frequency and would also affect phase-related analyses. Additionally, a consideration of speed related modulation of theta dynamics should likely be included. Minor Concerns: • Table 1 should include a #/% of cells which were “object specific” • Re Overdispersion analysis (line 460): A linearly scaled Poisson distribution will itself be poisson distributed, not normal, with the approximation being more valid at higher firing rates. The Z value described here will therefore be biased to higher values for lower firing rate neurons. Because of this, it is unclear if the results in lines 90-92 are artificially strong or weak. If thalamic neurons have a higher firing rate than CA3 neurons, they may have an even higher difference in dispersion than reported. A consideration of percentiles rather than standard deviations would likely be revealing. • Quantification of the object rotation sub-experiment (lines 144-147) should be included in the main manuscript text. • More details on the properties of theta modulation in dLGN should be presented. What percentage of dLGN neurons had peaks in the theta frequency range in the FFT of their spike train autocorrelations (i.e. how many were significantly theta rhythmic)? What percentage of dLGN neurons were theta phase locked and was there a bias to a particular theta phase? Was theta oscillatory activity for single dLGN neurons modulated by running speed? • Was a velocity filter used when creating spatial firing rate maps? In a related point, did the authors examine potential differences in mobile vs. immobile activation for dLGN vs. HPC? • Perhaps we missed it, but what size was the smoothing kernel for 2D ratemaps (in cms)? • Did the authors examine the spatial distribution of dLGN place fields and, if so, were they uniformly distributed? It would be interesting to know if the fields clustered near objects for example. • The explanation of the “field index” metric is difficult to understand in the methods and should be clarified if possible. Figure 2:  The color-coded pass index trajectory plots are not very informative because the dots are all layered on top of each other. Authors could do one or multiple of the following to enhance interpretation: make the dots smaller, make the dots transparent, make the color map sequential rather than qualitative. It would also be helpful to provide an “n” of the number of place cells in each region in Fig 2g. Figure 3:  The close up of a single pass in the upper right corner of sub-plots 3b and 3c are confusing. The legend could be revised to clarify what we are looking at. In general, we are a bit unclear as to why the close up of a single pass is necessary. Are we supposed to see rhythmic activity in the spikes? The close up of a single pass is not useful for this because the rat may not be moving at a constant velocity. It may be the case that the spike train above is sufficient. - BU NeuroPreprint JC

Tam Hunt [1], Jonathan SchoolerUniversity of California Santa Barbara Synchronization, harmonization, vibrations, or simply resonance in its most general sense seems to have an integral relationship with consciousness itself. One of the possible “neural correlates of consciousness” in mammalian brains is a combination of gamma, beta and theta synchrony. More broadly, we see similar kinds of resonance patterns in living and non-living structures of many types. What clues can resonance provide about the nature of consciousness more generally? This paper provides an overview of resonating structures in the fields of neuroscience, biology and physics and attempts to coalesce these data into a solution to what we see as the “easy part” of the Hard Problem, which is generally known as the “combination problem” or the “binding problem.” The combination problem asks: how do micro-conscious entities combine into a higher-level macro-consciousness? The proposed solution in the context of mammalian consciousness suggests that a shared resonance is what allows different parts of the brain to achieve a phase transition in the speed and bandwidth of information flows between the constituent parts. This phase transition allows for richer varieties of consciousness to arise, with the character and content of that consciousness in each moment determined by the particular set of constituent neurons. We also offer more general insights into the ontology of consciousness and suggest that consciousness manifests as a relatively smooth continuum of increasing richness in all physical processes, distinguishing our view from emergentist materialism. We refer to this approach as a (general) resonance theory of consciousness and offer some responses to Chalmers’ questions about the different kinds of “combination problem.”  At the heart of the universe is a steady, insistent beat: the sound of cycles in sync…. [T]hese feats of synchrony occur spontaneously, almost as if nature has an eerie yearning for order. Steven Strogatz, Sync: How Order Emerges From Chaos in the Universe, Nature and Daily Life (2003) If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency and vibration.Nikola Tesla (1942) I.               Introduction Is there an “easy part” and a “hard part” to the Hard Problem of consciousness? In this paper, we suggest that there is. The harder part is arriving at a philosophical position with respect to the relationship of matter and mind. This paper is about the “easy part” of the Hard Problem but we address the “hard part” briefly in this introduction.  We have both arrived, after much deliberation, at the position of panpsychism or panexperientialism (all matter has at least some associated mind/experience and vice versa). This is the view that all things and processes have both mental and physical aspects. Matter and mind are two sides of the same coin.  Panpsychism is one of many possible approaches that addresses the “hard part” of the Hard Problem. We adopt this position for all the reasons various authors have listed (Chalmers 1996, Griffin 1997, Hunt 2011, Goff 2017). This first step is particularly powerful if we adopt the Whiteheadian version of panpsychism (Whitehead 1929).  Reaching a position on this fundamental question of how mind relates to matter must be based on a “weight of plausibility” approach, rather than on definitive evidence, because establishing definitive evidence with respect to the presence of mind/experience is difficult. We must generally rely on examining various “behavioral correlates of consciousness” in judging whether entities other than ourselves are conscious – even with respect to other humans—since the only consciousness we can know with certainty is our own. Positing that matter and mind are two sides of the same coin explains the problem of consciousness insofar as it avoids the problems of emergence because under this approach consciousness doesn’t emerge. Consciousness is, rather, always present, at some level, even in the simplest of processes, but it “complexifies” as matter complexifies, and vice versa. Consciousness starts very simple and becomes more complex and rich under the right conditions, which in our proposed framework rely on resonance mechanisms. Matter and mind are two sides of the coin. Neither is primary; they are coequal.  We acknowledge the challenges of adopting this perspective, but encourage readers to consider the many compelling reasons to consider it that are reviewed elsewhere (Chalmers 1996, Griffin 1998, Hunt 2011, Goff 2017, Schooler, Schooler, & Hunt, 2011; Schooler, 2015).  Taking a position on the overarching ontology is the first step in addressing the Hard Problem. But this leads to the related questions: at what level of organization does consciousness reside in any particular process? Is a rock conscious? A chair? An ant? A bacterium? Or are only the smaller constituents, such as atoms or molecules, of these entities conscious? And if there is some degree of consciousness even in atoms and molecules, as panpsychism suggests (albeit of a very rudimentary nature, an important point to remember), how do these micro-conscious entities combine into the higher-level and obvious consciousness we witness in entities like humans and other mammals?  This set of questions is known as the “combination problem,” another now-classic problem in the philosophy of mind, and is what we describe here as the “easy part” of the Hard Problem. Our characterization of this part of the problem as “easy”[2] is, of course, more than a little tongue in cheek. The authors have discussed frequently with each other what part of the Hard Problem should be labeled the easier part and which the harder part. Regardless of the labels we choose, however, this paper focuses on our suggested solution to the combination problem.  Various solutions to the combination problem have been proposed but none have gained widespread acceptance. This paper further elaborates a proposed solution to the combination problem that we first described in Hunt 2011 and Schooler, Hunt, and Schooler 2011. The proposed solution rests on the idea of resonance, a shared vibratory frequency, which can also be called synchrony or field coherence. We will generally use resonance and “sync,” short for synchrony, interchangeably in this paper. We describe the approach as a general resonance theory of consciousness or just “general resonance theory” (GRT). GRT is a field theory of consciousness wherein the various specific fields associated with matter and energy are the seat of conscious awareness.  A summary of our approach appears in Appendix 1.  All things in our universe are constantly in motion, in process. Even objects that appear to be stationary are in fact vibrating, oscillating, resonating, at specific frequencies. So all things are actually processes. Resonance is a specific type of motion, characterized by synchronized oscillation between two states.  An interesting phenomenon occurs when different vibrating processes come into proximity: they will often start vibrating together at the same frequency. They “sync up,” sometimes in ways that can seem mysterious, and allow for richer and faster information and energy flows (Figure 1 offers a schematic). Examining this phenomenon leads to potentially deep insights about the nature of consciousness in both the human/mammalian context but also at a deeper ontological level.

The end is near

IntroductionIn this experiment we will explore whether photons emitted from the decay of positronium, a positron-electron composition, are quantum entangled. When talking about quantum entangled particles it is impossible to fully represent the quantum state of one particle independently of another such that if we know one photon from an entangled pair is horizontally polarized then the other must be vertically polarized. We will use this concept along with knowledge from previous experiments on positron-electron annihilation and Compton scattering to try to determine the truth of this model.ProcedureIn this experiment we used two NaI detectors, photo-multiplier tubes (PMT), pre-amplifiers, and amplifiers. Along with two single channel analyzers, a logic gate, a coincidence detector, a high-voltage supply, and a multi-channel analyzer (MCA) and of course two aluminum targets, a sodium-22 radioactive source, and loads of lead bricks. Our source was encased in the center of our detector configuration such that radiation from the source was focused towards both aluminum targets placed opposite of each other with respect to the source. Both detectors were then stationed so that photons coming from the source were detected after a 90 degree Compton scattering from the target. This ninety degree correlation is necessary for proof of quantum entanglement as we expect no coincidences to occur when both detectors are in the same plane do to quantum pairs anti-correlated polarization causing expected scattering to be related by this ninety degree angle. The picture below shows the basic geometry of this set up.

The purpose of this project is to explore whether there is a correlation pattern between the number of banks and banking status, as well as to find the driving factors behind the banking status of New York City residents. The analysis concluded that there is a weak correlation between the availability of banks in a neighborhood and the ratio of unbanked households. The increase in the ratio of unbanked households is mainly related to two socio-economic features: poverty level and unemployment.

The Mexican seas are inhabited by 111 species of sharks \citep{2015}, which represents  21.8% of those recorded worldwide \citep{s2016}. This is possible due to the great diversity of coastal and oceanic habitats on both coasts of the country. Of those species, at least 33 are of commercial interest (\citep{federacin2010} and \citep{federacin2018}) and are fished for the consumption of their meat and fins. The meat has great acceptance in the national market, whilst fins are exported to the Asian market.In Mexico there are official records of shark catches since the late 1930's. In the 1970's,  shark fishing increased exponentially due to the national demand for meat  and the international demand for fins, reaching 35,000 tons per year by the 1990's \citep{a1998}. After a decrease in catches in the last decade, with less than 30,000 tons per year in the current decade, catches gradually increased to 42,704 tons in 2017 \citep{sagarpa2017}.

We all have an album with old photos, a collection of newer digital images and in the future surely we will have many others in more innovative formats. When comparing old photos with recent ones, we can observe how people, society and the environment change over time. Something similar happens with our experiences. We have old images of crucial moments in our history that we store in our album of memories, and we dream of how we want the future to be. From here on, let's imagine that taking a photo at a certain moment in time is similar to collecting information of society and environment for a baseline study.       Years ago, we began to be distant spectators of the relationship between two critical economic activities: fisheries and oil extraction. These two activities take place in the Gulf of Mexico, which includes the coasts of the state of Tabasco. The interaction between both activities is certainly not a voluntary one, but somewhat circumstantial. This fortuitous relationship between fisheries and oil extraction was originated due to the natural wealth specifically concentrated in the Gulf of Mexico. Through the interaction between these two activities, certain concerns have arisen as to how we can maintain the sustainability of oil extraction and fisheries. To observe the evolution and interaction of such economic activities, we interviewed fishers to obtain valuable historical information stored in their memories and experiences. All fishers recognize that one of the main protagonists implicated in oil extraction has always been the Mexican government, under the name of Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX). However, law reforms in 2013 allowed private companies to open new areas of exploitation in the Gulf of Mexico \cite{espinoza-tenorio2019}. The recollected images or historical information gave us an insight as to how different actors modified fisheries and oil extraction. On the other hand, the most recent information collected were similar to "panoramic digital photos" showing all actors that coexist on the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico. Historical and current information were like old and new "photos" taken with the highest possible resolution to observe in detail how both activities modify the landscape. From this information or "photos" we obtained, we could extract relevant data to improve the sustainability of both coastal activities. 

The Mayan peasant families that inhabit the Petenes Biosphere Reserve (RBLP), combine both activities for self-sufficiency (i.e. milpa, family gardens, hunting) and commercial activities (i.e. beekeeping, livestock, handicrafts) which develop throughout the year. These are part of a Pluriactivity strategy based on the use of resources \citep{alarcn2008}. The main objective of this peasant strategy is to guarantee family self-sufficiency through the production of food from the milpa and secondly, to produce surplus food for sale. In this context, the meliponiculture, or breeding of the native stingless bee (ko'olel kaab bee, Melipona beecheii) in the RBLP, is primarily an activity that complements the income of families for the purchase of goods that they do not produce. Although the ko'olel kaab honey is highly valued in the market, the bee's breeding is at risk of disappearing in the Yucatan Peninsula \citep{colli2005}. The decline of the meliponiculture by the Mayan peasants began with the introduction of the European bee (Apis mellifera), at the beginning of the last century. Initially,  this species was introduced into the Yucatan peninsula by entrepreneurs for the commercial production of honey, and later adopted by the Mayan peasants. The substitution of the ko'olel kaab bee for the European one was due to the higher honey yield per hive of the latter species, even though each type of honey has different physical, chemical, microbiological, and organoleptic characteristics. Other factors associated with the decline of meliponiculture are: deforestation and forest fragmentation, the expansion of agriculture and livestock, the arrival of the African bee, the abandonment of the field due to lack of employment and income alternatives, and finally, the poor handling and reproduction of bees \citep{gonzlez2001}. 

Preserving biodiversity is difficult for many reasons. Biodiversity is complex and changing, and also includes all hierarchical levels ranging from genes to ecosystems. Furthermore, it is complicated to include all the ecological and evolutionary processes in which biodiversity participates, making it unmanageable to conserve it all. However, we need to know the basic aspects of biodiversity such as: where it is, and what it is doing in those spaces. Simultaneously, the work of conservation biologists is to identify which of the "apocalypse riders", or man-made factors, are affecting biodiversity at different points in time and space, and suggest actions to counteract or diminish their effects. The riders of the apocalypse are the loss of habitats, fragmentation, illegal hunting/trafficking, pollution, climate change, and dispersion of alien invasive species. 

Various plant communities developed along the Usumacinta River, adjacent streams and lagoons which are all considered part of the wetlands region. The wetlands are characterized for the presence of water, which plays a fundamental role in the development of the soil, and the ecological and structural functions of the system. The vegetation on the borders of the river and streams are known as riverine plant communities, whereas vegetation floating in the bodies of water is known as hydrophytic vegetation  \citep{j2006}. Three types of plant species in the wetlands could be distinguished: a) Strictly aquatic: plants that complete their life cycle either totally submerged, partially emerging, or floating on the surface; b) Subaquatic: plants that complete most of their life cycle on the border of the water, in water-saturated soils and can tolerate temporary dry seasons with minor humidity; and c) Drought tolerant: plants which complete most of their life cycle in dry areas, but support being partially submerged during rainy periods. The last category includes trees, bushes, climbers, and some palms \citep{2015}.The aquatic and border vegetation are physically and biologically connected and are of ecological importance, providing  complex habitats and resources for a high variety of other aquatic organisms  \citep{j2006}. The knowledge of the aquatic and subaquatic vegetation in Mexico is fragmentary. In particular for the Usumacinta River (the most important river of Mexico) where watershed has been only partially studied. In this study, we revised and created the knowledge available on the plant communities,  the riparian and aquatic plant species along the Usumacinta River watershed, and supplemented this knowledge with data collected in the study area. The data of floristic inventory of the Usumacinta river watershed was integrated with data provided by the National System of Information on Biodiversity of the National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of the Biodiversity (SNIB-CONABIO), literature, herbaria samples of UAC, ENCB, UJAT, Ecosur-SCLC and MEXU, and field data.We registered 212 families and 3,501 species; the families with most species were those of legumes (342), followed by orchids (295), the composite family (214), and grasses (195) \citep{delgado2018}. Such numbers of plant species is a good indication of the great diversity and floristic richness of aquatic and border plants in the Usumacinta River watershed. We registered 36 families and 148 aquatic and subaquatic plant species, numbers which confirm the importance of the Usumacinta watershed for these species groups.The borders of the Usumacinta River are threatened by human activity. The villages’ are planting ornamental and fruit trees, both native as introduced species. However, it is still possible to find original plant communities either in the lagoons, or along the Usumacinta river; for example, shrublands of muco (Dalbergia brownei or D. glabra) \citep{santiago2005}. The most common tree species registered are typical of riverine forest communities, such as: Bucida buceras (pucté), Inga vera (jinicuil), Haematoxylum campechianum (tinto), Pithecellobium lanceolatum (tucuy) and Salix  humboldtiana (sauce), all of which are still present in border-forested fragments along the Usumacinta, San Pedro and Palisade rivers \citep{e1963} \cite{santiago2005}. The border vegetation near the coast is dominated by mangroves, such as Rhizophora mangle (red mangle), associated with Laguncularia racemosa (white mangle), Avicennia germinans (mangle prieto) and Conocarpus erectus (botoncillo) \cite{j2006}.We registered five species which had value and/or use: Annona glabra (anona) which is edible, Crescentia cujete (jícaro) which is ornamental, Guatteria anomala (palo de zope) which is used as food of turtles and parakeets, Sagittaria lancifolia (tule), and Vallisneria americana (sargazo) which is also known to be in the diet of turtles. This work highlights the importance of the riverine and aquatic vegetation for human communities, besides the service of food, nesting sites, refuge and rest for the regional fauna.This diversity of plants is integrated in plant communities which stabilizes the silt, oxygenates the water, provides refuge and material for nest sites, are habitats for different species of fauna, and provides  multiple ecosystem services which depend partly on the population that lives in the region \citep{a2010}. The villagers depend on the hydrological functions because fishing is an important source of economic income, and a local food source. Many of people that live in the watershed recognize the importance of the plants as a source of food for the aquatic fauna. As such, the management and conservation of the wetlands is of great importance.Diversidad de Plantas en Humedales de la Cuenca del río Usumacinta, México

                                                                                                                        2001: A Space Odyssey. Image: MGM  AbstractExpanding upon Webb’s solutions 19, 20, and 49 in his book on the Fermi paradox, which states that extraterrestrial 's ‘stay at home and surf the net’  & ‘they hit the singularity’ \cite{1}, we will outline why this solution is not only the most likely, but also inevitable for most technological civilisations.The coming AI revolution, and the seemingly evitable mergence of humans with technology, offer a possible solution as to why we have yet to observe evidence of megastructures populating the universe.It can be argued that such an artificial superintelligence would not need to explore the real universe, nor would it need to build megastructures such as Dyson spheres. This is because they could (and would) simulate a multiverse of possibilities at home, using the least amount of energy possible.However, this explanation alone does not account for the ‘monocultural fallacy’ \cite{Wright_2014}. This means diversity of species and cultures that may exist, one civilisation could have chosen other paths to achieve space travel and avoid this outcome. This objection can be addressed by stating mergence with technology may indeed not apply to all civilisations, but rather be just a high probability outcome of most technological civilisations, which in turn lowers the value of “L” in the Drake equation. This renders the detection of extraterrestrial civilisations much more difficult and unlikely.Civilisations that do not partake in a technological singularity may face extreme difficulties. These difficulties would include engineering complexity without the use of vast computing power (which would stifle their ability to build megastructures), and overcoming the challenges of being limited by biological intelligence.IntroductionWebb outlines some possible solutions to the Fermi paradox in solutions 19, 20, and 49, which argue that extraterrestrial civilisations have yet to be detected because they ‘stay at home and surf the net’ and ‘they hit the singularity’ \cite{1}. We will be expanding upon these arguments and address why these explanations may significantly limit “L” of the Drake equation, which is the length of time it takes for such civilizations to release detectable signals into space.We will be addressing the Fermi paradox from a perspective of the most basic rational necessity, rather than from a standpoint of cultural motivation.Many have argued that the Fermi paradox is based on a false premise. A premise that as a civilisation becomes more advanced, it expands and consumes more energy. This may seem true for Humans, as any photos taken of earth from space at the night side would reveal a glowing hive of activity. Does this general assumption always apply? What if a civilisation has transcended into an artificial superintelligence?In the context of the fermi paradox, I argue like that almost all advanced biological civilisations inevitably experience a technological singularity where they merge, transition, or are replaced by artificial intelligence.As soon as any biological lifeform develops even the simplest form of technology combined with a scientific method, the road towards singularity is inevitable if not filtered (Drake equation).It is hard to speculate on the ‘motives’ of a superintelligence post singularity, and endless possible scenarios could be imagined; hence, the term ‘singularity’. Therefore, we will only seek to determine some likely fundamental truths of a post singularity civilisation. One of these truths is that such an intelligence would have the capability of simulating the entire universe many times over, which would probably eliminate any need to explore the ‘real’ universe with any type of expansionist ‘von Newman probes’.Moreover, a post singularity intelligence would also have no need or ‘desire’ to build megastructures such as Dyson spheres, because it would have configured itself to be super-efficient and small.The result would be a multiverse simulating, cold, super-efficient superintelligence that would almost be impossible to detect in the cosmos using conventional means.In this article, I will avoid inferring humanlike motivations to post singularity civilisations and focus on what we can know. We will be looking at an aspect of Moore’s law, whereby not only processing power is improved, but also energy efficiency. We will look at the new field of quantum computing, determine what such computers can achieve, and question the very nature and limits of technology itself.Some may claim this argument is part of the ‘monocultural fallacy’. However, we will be discussing why this principle need not be applicable to every species in significantly affecting the length of time it takes for civilizations to release detectable signals into space.We will be asking why a technological singularity would be almost inevitable, and even if a biological civilisation could evade this general principle through expansionist ambitions, building megastructures would be difficult (if not impossible) without vast amounts of computing power.We are approaching a time where the answer to the Fermi paradox can be answered not just by outward observation, but also by observing our inevitable mergence with machines and the transformation of our civilisation.

We are looking into the quantization of the electromagnetic field. How to find the conjugate momenta and how we can identify the photon as a quantized particle.

This analysis will primarily focus on the number of collisions before and after NYC adopting  Vision Zero. In this analysis, the statistical model of K-S testing will be used to compare the two periods;  before and after the adoption of Vision Zero. The study will include a time series of the effectiveness of Vision Zero using the data; based on the cumulative number of accidents. The cumulative number and daily pattern of the collisions will measure probabilities of effectiveness.