Within-state disparities
To examine state-level air temperature differences, we conducted regressions stratified by state or district in 2003–2019, with fixed effects for county and year and standard errors constructed using Conley equations to account for spatial dependence, calculated based on tract centroids (Table 1 ). Asian people experienced notably higher temperature exposures in nine states compared to the county-level average, except for Delaware where CDDs were lower (mean difference [MD]: -20.4; 95% CI: -36.5, -4.3). Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia, and Washington D.C. showed no difference for Asian people, and the highest exposure difference was in Rhode Island (MD: 27.0; 95% CI: 11.4, 42.7). Black people experienced higher CDDs in all states except Maryland and Washington D.C.; the largest exposure difference was in Rhode Island (MD: 43.6; 95% CI: 30.3, 56.9). Latino people experienced higher CDDs in all states except for Washington D.C.; the largest exposure difference was in Rhode Island (MD: 52.1; 95% CI: 37.3, 66.9). White people experienced fewer CDDs in all states except Maryland and Washington D.C.; the largest exposure difference was in New Jersey (MD: -17.0; 95% CI: -21.2, -12.8). Model predictions are visualized inFigure 1 , which plots the results for one city from each census region. Results showed systematically higher temperature exposures for Black and Latino people, varying results for Asian people, and exposures consistently at or below the county averages for white people.