FIGURE 8 (A) Miniaturised optoelectronic systems with wireless RF-powered LEDs for optogenetics. Reproduced with permission.[39] Copyright 2015, Springer Nature. (B) Flexible bioresorbable electronic stimulators for neuromuscular regeneration with continuous wireless RF power. Reproduced with permission.[24] Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. (C) A thin and flexible optoelectronic implant for optogenetic experiments self-powered by near-field wireless power transfer. Reproduced with permission.[37] Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (D) Smart contact lens for diabetic diagnosis and therapy with near-field wireless power transfer and data communication. Reproduced with permission.[126] Copyright 2020, Science. (E) Non-invasive ultrasound-driven in vivo electrical stimulation for nerve tissue repair monitoring. Reproduced with permission.[41] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (F) Ultraminiaturised wireless implants with infrared-to-visible up-conversion devices as injectable light sources for optogenetic neuromodulation. Reproduced with permission.[40]Copyright 2018, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
4. Conclusions and Perspectives
The past decades have witnessed revolutionary changes in the field of IMEs owning to the surging demand not only for the functional electrical therapy of chronic degenerative diseases but also bio-signals for health care monitoring with high fidelity and stability. The rapid development of ultraminiature implantable electronics in recent years reveals the urgent demand for minimally invasive power sources. Traditional bulky and rigid power devices including primary batteries packaged in metal cases can no longer satisfy the requirements of the state-of-the-art implantable electronic system regarding flexibility, biocompatibility, durability, lightweight and minimal invasion. As an overall conclusion of the recent advances in miniaturised IMEs and power strategies for the system, this review provides a comprehensive summary of the historical development of implantable electronics and the applicable alternative miniaturised power sources for the advanced miniaturised IMEs system with an outlook for challenges in the future development. From the milestones in the development history of implantable electronics, the tendency towards minimizing the incision size and optimizing biocompatibility is obvious. With the facilitation of the recent advanced technologies in microfabrication technologies and biocompatible materials, IMEs system will be developed towards non-invasive, ultra-flexible, bioresorbable, wireless and multifunctional to therefore achieve painless implantation and high-accuracy bio-functional monitoring. To discuss the applicable minimally invasive power sources with different mechanisms for various IMEs, three kinds of power sources including energy storage devices, human body energy harvesters and wireless power transfer were summarized. For the stable energy storage devices, the biodegradability feature enables single-used primary batteries to serve as a short-term stable power source for transient bioelectronics with no need for surgical removal thanks to the fully degradable and biocompatible materials, whereas the exploration of controllable packaging methods and clear dissolution mechanisms still need further study. Rechargeable batteries and supercapacitors with one-dimensional fibre configuration are desirable for an injectable bioelectronic system requiring sustainable long-term power sources due to their good stability and rechargeability. In addition, human body energy harvesters including PENG, TENG and biofuel cells as a permanent energy source can be implanted once for all and support the IMEs to finish the missions during the lifetime of the hosts, however, the stability of continuous power supply and long-term safety inside the body represents the main limitation for their long-term application. Finally, wireless power transfer including near-field magnetic resonant coupling, far-field RF radiation, PV power transfer and ultrasonic power transfer can provide higher output power as a direct power source or assistant external power source to charge the energy storage devices. Through electromagnetic and acoustic waves, wireless power can be transferred to avoid the limitations caused by tethers, but concerns of safety issues brought by the exposure limit of the human body need further consideration.
It is still challenging to realise the self-powered minimally invasive IMEs with long-term stable functions through a service time reaching or exceeding the human lifespan. The complex and integrated independent system with power source management, biomedical functions and wireless communication operating as a whole in the human body should be further explored. With the advancement in these frontiers, it is promising to achieve miniaturisation and multifunctional combination of minimally invasive power sources driven IMEs system to realise pain-free health monitor and biomedical treatment with high accuracy and fidelity in the near future.
Acknowledgements
M.X. acknowledge support from the China Scholarship Council scholarship (CSC, No.202006950020). Y.Z. and F.C. acknowledge support from the National Measurement System of the UK Department of Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. K.Y. acknowledge support from the EPSRC New Investigator Award (EP/V002260/1) and the Faraday Institute - Battery Study and Seed Research Project (FIRG052). The icons in Figure 2 are from ICON8. D.Y. and J.W acknowledge support from Key Program for International S&T Cooperation Projects of Shaanxi Province (2023-GHZD-26).
References
[1] H. Berger, Archiv für psychiatrie und nervenkrankheiten1929 , 87, 527.
[2] D.-H. Kim, N. Lu, R. Ma, Y.-S. Kim, R.-H. Kim, S. Wang, J. Wu, S. M. Won, H. Tao, A. Islam, science 2011 , 333, 838.
[3] E. J. Fox, R. Melzack, Pain 1976 , 2, 141.
[4] D. Halperin, T. S. Heydt-Benjamin, K. Fu, T. Kohno, W. H. Maisel, IEEE pervasive computing 2008 , 7, 30.
[5] C. Stellbrink, H.-J. Trappe, European heart journal supplements 2007 , 9, I113.
[6] K. Bazaka, M. V. Jacob, Electronics 2012 , 2, 1.
[7] E. Meng, R. Sheybani, Lab on a Chip 2014 , 14, 3233.
[8] S. Choi, H. Lee, R. Ghaffari, T. Hyeon, D. H. Kim,Advanced materials 2016 , 28, 4203.
[9] Z.-B. Chen, H.-H. Jin, Z.-G. Yang, D.-P. He, Rare Metals2022 , 1.
[10] Y. Bai, L. Sun, Q. Yu, Y. Lei, B. Liu, Nano Research Energy 2022 .
[11] D. M. Cox‐Pridmore, F. A. Castro, S. R. P. Silva, P. Camelliti, Y. Zhao, Small 2022 , 18, 2105281.
[12] K. Jeffrey, V. Parsonnet, Circulation 1998 , 97, 1978.
[13] H. C. Ko, M. P. Stoykovich, J. Song, V. Malyarchuk, W. M. Choi, C.-J. Yu, J. B. Geddes Iii, J. Xiao, S. Wang, Y. Huang, Nature2008 , 454, 748.
[14] J. Kim, M. Lee, H. J. Shim, R. Ghaffari, H. R. Cho, D. Son, Y. H. Jung, M. Soh, C. Choi, S. Jung, Nature communications2014 , 5, 1.
[15] D. C. Bock, A. C. Marschilok, K. J. Takeuchi, E. S. Takeuchi,Electrochimica acta 2012 , 84, 155.
[16] H. Sheng, X. Zhang, J. Liang, M. Shao, E. Xie, C. Yu, W. Lan,Advanced Healthcare Materials 2021 , 10, 2100199.
[17] X. Huang, L. Wang, H. Wang, B. Zhang, X. Wang, R. Y. Stening, X. Sheng, L. Yin, Small 2020 , 16, 1902827.
[18] A. A. La Mattina, S. Mariani, G. Barillaro, Advanced Science 2020 , 7, 1902872.
[19] L. Yin, X. Huang, H. Xu, Y. Zhang, J. Lam, J. Cheng, J. A. Rogers, Advanced Materials 2014 , 26, 3879.
[20] Y. Dong, J. Li, F. Yang, Y. Wang, Z. Zhang, J. Wang, Y. Long, X. Wang, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2021 , 13, 14275.
[21] X. Jia, C. Wang, V. Ranganathan, B. Napier, C. Yu, Y. Chao, M. Forsyth, F. G. Omenetto, D. R. MacFarlane, G. G. Wallace, ACS Energy Letters 2017 , 2, 831.
[22] X. Huang, D. Wang, Z. Yuan, W. Xie, Y. Wu, R. Li, Y. Zhao, D. Luo, L. Cen, B. Chen, Small 2018 , 14, 1800994.
[23] W. Tian, Y. Li, J. Zhou, T. Wang, R. Zhang, J. Cao, M. Luo, N. Li, N. Zhang, H. Gong, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces2021 , 13, 8285.
[24] Y. S. Choi, Y.-Y. Hsueh, J. Koo, Q. Yang, R. Avila, B. Hu, Z. Xie, G. Lee, Z. Ning, C. Liu, Nature communications2020 , 11, 1.
[25] T. Mei, C. Wang, M. Liao, J. Li, L. Wang, C. Tang, X. Sun, B. Wang, H. Peng, Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2021 , 9, 10104.
[26] Y. Zhao, T. Mei, L. Ye, Y. Li, L. Wang, Y. Zhang, P. Chen, X. Sun, C. Wang, H. Peng, Journal of Materials Chemistry A2021 , 9, 1463.
[27] H. J. Sim, C. Choi, D. Y. Lee, H. Kim, J.-H. Yun, J. M. Kim, T. M. Kang, R. Ovalle, R. H. Baughman, C. W. Kee, Nano Energy2018 , 47, 385.
[28] Y. Zou, L. Bo, Z. Li, Fundamental Research2021 , 1, 364.
[29] S. Azimi, A. Golabchi, A. Nekookar, S. Rabbani, M. H. Amiri, K. Asadi, M. M. Abolhasani, Nano Energy 2021 , 83, 105781.
[30] Q. Zheng, B. Shi, F. Fan, X. Wang, L. Yan, W. Yuan, S. Wang, H. Liu, Z. Li, Z. L. Wang, Advanced materials 2014 , 26, 5851.
[31] F. C. Sales, R. M. Iost, M. V. Martins, M. C. Almeida, F. N. Crespilho, Lab on a Chip 2013 , 13, 468.
[32] Y. Zhang, X. Gao, Y. Wu, J. Gui, S. Guo, H. Zheng, Z. L. Wang,Exploration 2021 , 1, 90.
[33] R. Dharmasena, K. Jayawardena, Z. Saadi, X. Yao, R. Bandara, Y. Zhao, S. R. P. Silva, Proceedings of the IEEE 2019 , 107, 2118.
[34] B. Dudem, R. I. G. Dharmasena, S. A. Graham, J. W. Leem, H. Patnam, A. R. Mule, S. R. P. Silva, J. S. Yu, Nano Energy2020 , 74, 104882.
[35] S. M. Won, L. Cai, P. Gutruf, J. A. Rogers, Nature Biomedical Engineering 2021 , 1.
[36] A. Sridharan, S. D. Rajan, J. Muthuswamy, Journal of neural engineering 2013 , 10, 066001.
[37] G. Shin, A. M. Gomez, R. Al-Hasani, Y. R. Jeong, J. Kim, Z. Xie, A. Banks, S. M. Lee, S. Y. Han, C. J. Yoo, Neuron2017 , 93, 509.
[38] S. Ma, L. Sydänheimo, L. Ukkonen, T. Björninen, IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters 2018 , 17, 710.
[39] S. I. Park, D. S. Brenner, G. Shin, C. D. Morgan, B. A. Copits, H. U. Chung, M. Y. Pullen, K. N. Noh, S. Davidson, S. J. Oh,Nature biotechnology 2015 , 33, 1280.
[40] H. Ding, L. Lu, Z. Shi, D. Wang, L. Li, X. Li, Y. Ren, C. Liu, D. Cheng, H. Kim, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences2018 , 115, 6632.
[41] P. Wu, P. Chen, C. Xu, Q. Wang, F. Zhang, K. Yang, W. Jiang, J. Feng, Z. Luo, Nano Energy 2022 , 102, 107707.
[42] Y. H. Jung, J. U. Kim, J. S. Lee, J. H. Shin, W. Jung, J. Ok, T. i. Kim, Advanced Materials 2020 , 32, 1907478.
[43] O. Aquilina, Images in paediatric cardiology2006 , 8, 17.
[44] K. A. Polyzos, A. A. Konstantelias, M. E. Falagas, Ep Europace 2015 , 17, 767.
[45] P. Wardrop, D. Whinney, S. J. Rebscher, J. T. Roland Jr, W. Luxford, P. A. Leake, Hearing research 2005 , 203, 54.
[46] F.-G. Zeng, S. Rebscher, W. Harrison, X. Sun, H. Feng,IEEE reviews in biomedical engineering 2008 , 1, 115.
[47] S. K. Kelly, D. B. Shire, J. Chen, P. Doyle, M. D. Gingerich, S. F. Cogan, W. A. Drohan, S. Behan, L. Theogarajan, J. L. Wyatt,IEEE transactions on biomedical engineering 2011 , 58, 3197.
[48] S. Gunda, Y. M. Reddy, J. Pillarisetti, S. Koripalli, C. Jeffery, J. Swope, D. Atkins, S. Bommana, M. P. Emert, R. Pimentel,International Journal of Cardiology 2015 , 191, 58.
[49] L. J. Hutchinson, G. Stuart, M. A. Walsh, Cardiology in the Young 2015 , 25, 1221.
[50] K.-I. Jang, S. Y. Han, S. Xu, K. E. Mathewson, Y. Zhang, J.-W. Jeong, G.-T. Kim, R. C. Webb, J. W. Lee, T. J. Dawidczyk, Nature communications 2014 , 5, 1.
[51] T.-i. Kim, J. G. McCall, Y. H. Jung, X. Huang, E. R. Siuda, Y. Li, J. Song, Y. M. Song, H. A. Pao, R.-H. Kim, Science2013 , 340, 211.
[52] B. J. Woodington, V. F. Curto, Y.-L. Yu, H. Martínez-Domínguez, L. Coles, G. G. Malliaras, C. M. Proctor, D. G. Barone, Science Advances 2021 , 7, eabg7833.
[53] J. Li, Y. Liu, L. Yuan, B. Zhang, E. S. Bishop, K. Wang, J. Tang, Y.-Q. Zheng, W. Xu, S. Niu, Nature 2022 , 606, 94.
[54] G. B. Wanna, J. H. Noble, M. L. Carlson, R. H. Gifford, M. S. Dietrich, D. S. Haynes, B. M. Dawant, R. F. Labadie, The Laryngoscope 2014 , 124, S1.
[55] J. L. Pinyon, S. F. Tadros, K. E. Froud, A. C. Y. Wong, I. T. Tompson, E. N. Crawford, M. Ko, R. Morris, M. Klugmann, G. D. Housley,Science translational medicine 2014 , 6, 233ra54.
[56] Y. Xiao, Y. Wang, F. Li, T. Lin, K. Huffman, S. Landeros, B. Bosse, Y. Jing, D.-U. Bartsch, S. Thorogood, Translational vision science & technology 2019 , 8, 20.
[57] W. Lu, W. Bai, H. Zhang, C. Xu, A. M. Chiarelli, A. Vázquez-Guardado, Z. Xie, H. Shen, K. Nandoliya, H. Zhao, Science Advances 2021 , 7, eabe0579.
[58] A. Graafstra, IEEE Spectrum 2007 , 44, 18.
[59] K. Song, J. Kim, S. Cho, N. Kim, D. Jung, H. Choo, J. Lee,Advanced Healthcare Materials 2018 , 7, 1800419.
[60] K. Matsushita, M. Hirata, T. Suzuki, H. Ando, T. Yoshida, Y. Ota, F. Sato, S. Morris, H. Sugata, T. Goto, Frontiers in neuroscience 2018 , 12, 511.
[61] C. T. Wentz, J. G. Bernstein, P. Monahan, A. Guerra, A. Rodriguez, E. S. Boyden, Journal of neural engineering2011 , 8, 046021.
[62] T. Zhang, Z. Li, W. Hou, Y. Yang, Materials Today Nano2020 , 9, 100070.
[63] E. Gibney, Nature 2015 , 528, 26.
[64] C. Dagdeviren, Z. Li, Z. L. Wang, Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng2017 , 19, 85.
[65] H. Dinis, P. Mendes, Biosensors and Bioelectronics2021 , 172, 112781.
[66] S. Cosnier, A. Le Goff, M. Holzinger, Electrochemistry Communications 2014 , 38, 19.
[67] B. Shi, Z. Li, Y. Fan, Advanced Materials 2018 , 30, 1801511.
[68] Y. Zou, P. Tan, B. Shi, H. Ouyang, D. Jiang, Z. Liu, H. Li, M. Yu, C. Wang, X. Qu, Nature Communications 2019 , 10, 1.
[69] E. Katz, K. MacVittie, Energy & Environmental Science2013 , 6, 2791.
[70] L. Zhao, H. Li, J. Meng, Z. Li, InfoMat 2020 , 2, 212.
[71] L. Zhao, H. Li, J. Meng, A. C. Wang, P. Tan, Y. Zou, Z. Yuan, J. Lu, C. Pan, Y. Fan, Advanced Functional Materials2020 , 30, 1907999.
[72] Z. Xie, R. Avila, Y. Huang, J. A. Rogers, Advanced Materials 2020 , 32, 1902767.
[73] Y.-J. Hung, J.-F. Liao, Y.-C. Cheng, IEEE Electron Device Letters 2020 , 41, 1798.
[74] L. Jiang, Y. Yang, Y. Chen, Q. Zhou, Nano Energy2020 , 77, 105131.
[75] Y. Ahmad, K. Guérin, M. Dubois, W. Zhang, A. Hamwi,Electrochimica Acta 2013 , 114, 142.
[76] F. Cheng, J. Chen, Journal of Materials Chemistry2011 , 21, 9841.
[77] Y. Zhao, M. Hong, N. Bonnet Mercier, G. Yu, H. C. Choi, H. R. Byon, Nano letters 2014 , 14, 1085.
[78] J. Marple, Journal of power sources 1987 , 19, 325.
[79] S. Li, K. Shu, C. Zhao, C. Wang, Z. Guo, G. Wallace, H. K. Liu,ACS applied materials & interfaces 2014 , 6, 16679.
[80] X. Jia, Y. Yang, C. Wang, C. Zhao, R. Vijayaraghavan, D. R. MacFarlane, M. Forsyth, G. G. Wallace, ACS applied materials & interfaces 2014 , 6, 21110.
[81] A. Bandodkar, S. Lee, I. Huang, W. Li, S. Wang, C.-J. Su, W. Jeang, T. Hang, S. Mehta, N. Nyberg, Nature Electronics2020 , 3, 554.
[82] P. Nadeau, D. El-Damak, D. Glettig, Y. L. Kong, S. Mo, C. Cleveland, L. Booth, N. Roxhed, R. Langer, A. P. Chandrakasan,Nature biomedical engineering 2017 , 1, 1.
[83] M. Isik, R. Gracia, L. C. Kollnus, L. C. Tome, I. M. Marrucho, D. Mecerreyes, ACS Macro Letters 2013 , 2, 975.
[84] X. Huang, Journal of Semiconductors 2018 , 39, 011003.
[85] F. Rancan, D. Papakostas, S. Hadam, S. Hackbarth, T. Delair, C. Primard, B. Verrier, W. Sterry, U. Blume-Peytavi, A. Vogt,Pharmaceutical research 2009 , 26, 2027.
[86] S. Shawe, F. Buchanan, E. Harkin-Jones, D. Farrar,Journal of materials science 2006 , 41, 4832.
[87] S. Sarkar, G. Y. Lee, J. Y. Wong, T. A. Desai,Biomaterials 2006 , 27, 4775.
[88] A. Bianco, K. Kostarelos, M. Prato, Chemical communications 2011 , 47, 10182.
[89] Q. Wang, C. Wang, M. Zhang, M. Jian, Y. Zhang, Nano Letters 2016 , 16, 6695.
[90] T. Ye, J. Wang, Y. Jiao, L. Li, E. He, L. Wang, Y. Li, Y. Yun, D. Li, J. Lu, Advanced Materials 2022 , 34, 2105120.
[91] J. Zhou, R. Zhang, R. Xu, Y. Li, W. Tian, M. Gao, M. Wang, D. Li, X. Liang, L. Xie, Advanced Functional Materials2022 , 32, 2111406.
[92] A. Stott, M. O. Tas, E. Y. Matsubara, M. G. Masteghin, J. M. Rosolen, R. A. Sporea, S. R. P. Silva, Energy & Environmental Materials 2020 , 3, 389.
[93] Q. Xia, T. Xia, X. Wu, Rare Metals 2022 , 1.
[94] S. Wang, J. Ma, X. Shi, Y. Zhu, Z.-S. Wu, Nano Research Energy 2022 , 1, e9120018.
[95] F. Bu, W. Zhou, Y. Xu, Y. Du, C. Guan, W. Huang, Npj Flexible Electronics 2020 , 4, 1.
[96] J. Ren, L. Li, C. Chen, X. Chen, Z. Cai, L. Qiu, Y. Wang, X. Zhu, H. Peng, Advanced Materials 2013 , 25, 1155.
[97] L. Liu, Z. Niu, J. Chen, Nano Research 2017 , 10, 1524.
[98] J. S. Chae, N.-S. Heo, C. H. Kwak, W.-S. Cho, G. H. Seol, W.-S. Yoon, H.-K. Kim, D. J. Fray, A. E. Vilian, Y.-K. Han, Nano Energy2017 , 34, 86.
[99] S. He, Y. Hu, J. Wan, Q. Gao, Y. Wang, S. Xie, L. Qiu, C. Wang, G. Zheng, B. Wang, Carbon 2017 , 122, 162.
[100] Y. Fang, A. Prominski, M. Y. Rotenberg, L. Meng, H. Acarón Ledesma, Y. Lv, J. Yue, E. Schaumann, J. Jeong, N. Yamamoto,Nature nanotechnology 2021 , 16, 206.
[101] J. Park, D. B. Ahn, J. Kim, E. Cha, B.-S. Bae, S.-Y. Lee, J.-U. Park, Science advances 2019 , 5, eaay0764.
[102] D. Jiang, B. Shi, H. Ouyang, Y. Fan, Z. L. Wang, Z. Li,ACS nano 2020 , 14, 6436.
[103] K. Wang, W. Xu, W. Zhang, X. Wang, X. Yang, J. Li, H. Zhang, J. Li, Z. Wang, Nano Research Energy 2022 .
[104] Z. Li, G. Zhu, R. Yang, A. C. Wang, Z. L. Wang, Advanced materials 2010 , 22, 2534.
[105] C. Dagdeviren, B. D. Yang, Y. Su, P. L. Tran, P. Joe, E. Anderson, J. Xia, V. Doraiswamy, B. Dehdashti, X. Feng,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2014 , 111, 1927.
[106] D. H. Kim, H. J. Shin, H. Lee, C. K. Jeong, H. Park, G. T. Hwang, H. Y. Lee, D. J. Joe, J. H. Han, S. H. Lee, Advanced Functional Materials 2017 , 27, 1700341.
[107] X. Cheng, X. Xue, Y. Ma, M. Han, W. Zhang, Z. Xu, H. Zhang, H. Zhang, Nano Energy 2016 , 22, 453.
[108] P. A. Heidenreich, J. G. Trogdon, O. A. Khavjou, J. Butler, K. Dracup, M. D. Ezekowitz, E. A. Finkelstein, Y. Hong, S. C. Johnston, A. Khera, Circulation 2011 , 123, 933.
[109] M. Wang, J. Zhang, Y. Tang, J. Li, B. Zhang, E. Liang, Y. Mao, X. Wang, ACS nano 2018 , 12, 6156.
[110] H. Ouyang, J. Tian, G. Sun, Y. Zou, Z. Liu, H. Li, L. Zhao, B. Shi, Y. Fan, Y. Fan, Advanced Materials 2017 , 29, 1703456.
[111] Z. Liu, Y. Ma, H. Ouyang, B. Shi, N. Li, D. Jiang, F. Xie, D. Qu, Y. Zou, Y. Huang, Advanced Functional Materials2019 , 29, 1807560.
[112] G. Yao, L. Kang, J. Li, Y. Long, H. Wei, C. A. Ferreira, J. J. Jeffery, Y. Lin, W. Cai, X. Wang, Nature communications2018 , 9, 1.
[113] F.-R. Fan, Z.-Q. Tian, Z. L. Wang, Nano energy2012 , 1, 328.
[114] F. R. Fan, W. Tang, Z. L. Wang, Advanced Materials2016 , 28, 4283.
[115] L. Halámková, J. Halámek, V. Bocharova, A. Szczupak, L. Alfonta, E. Katz, Journal of the American Chemical Society2012 , 134, 5040.
[116] A. Zebda, S. Cosnier, J.-P. Alcaraz, M. Holzinger, A. Le Goff, C. Gondran, F. Boucher, F. Giroud, K. Gorgy, H. Lamraoui,Scientific reports 2013 , 3, 1.
[117] A. Szczupak, J. Halámek, L. Halámková, V. Bocharova, L. Alfonta, E. Katz, Energy & Environmental Science 2012 , 5, 8891.
[118] K. MacVittie, J. Halámek, L. Halámková, M. Southcott, W. D. Jemison, R. Lobel, E. Katz, Energy & Environmental Science2013 , 6, 81.
[119] A. Ben Amar, A. B. Kouki, H. Cao, sensors2015 , 15, 28889.
[120] A. Kim, M. Ochoa, R. Rahimi, B. Ziaie, IEEE access2015 , 3, 89.
[121] F. Merli, L. Bolomey, J.-F. Zurcher, G. Corradini, E. Meurville, A. K. Skrivervik, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and propagation 2011 , 59, 3544.
[122] Q. Guo, J. Koo, Z. Xie, R. Avila, X. Yu, X. Ning, H. Zhang, X. Liang, S. B. Kim, Y. Yan, Advanced Functional Materials2019 , 29, 1905451.
[123] J. C. Lin, IEEE Antennas and propagation Magazine2006 , 48, 157.
[124] T. Karacolak, R. Cooper, E. Topsakal, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation 2009 , 57, 2806.
[125] J. Kim, A. Banks, Z. Xie, S. Y. Heo, P. Gutruf, J. W. Lee, S. Xu, K. I. Jang, F. Liu, G. Brown, Advanced Functional Materials2015 , 25, 4761.
[126] D. H. Keum, S.-K. Kim, J. Koo, G.-H. Lee, C. Jeon, J. W. Mok, B. H. Mun, K. J. Lee, E. Kamrani, C.-K. Joo, Science advances2020 , 6, eaba3252.
[127] H. Zhang, P. Gutruf, K. Meacham, M. C. Montana, X. Zhao, A. M. Chiarelli, A. Vázquez-Guardado, A. Norris, L. Lu, Q. Guo, Science advances 2019 , 5, eaaw0873.
[128] B. C. Johnson, K. Shen, D. Piech, M. M. Ghanbari, K. Y. Li, R. Neely, J. M. Carmena, M. M. Maharbiz, R. Muller, presented at 2018 IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference (CICC) 2018 .
[129] H. Basaeri, D. B. Christensen, S. Roundy, Smart Materials and Structures 2016 , 25, 123001.
[130] A. Denisov, E. Yeatman, presented at 2010 International Conference on Body Sensor Networks 2010 .
[131] T. R. Nelson, J. B. Fowlkes, J. S. Abramowicz, C. C. Church,2009 .
[132] W. D. O’Brien Jr, Progress in biophysics and molecular biology 2007 , 93, 212.
[133] S. Lee, A. J. Cortese, A. P. Gandhi, E. R. Agger, P. L. McEuen, A. C. Molnar, IEEE transactions on biomedical circuits and systems 2018 , 12, 1256.
[134] S. I. Park, G. Shin, A. Banks, J. G. McCall, E. R. Siuda, M. J. Schmidt, H. U. Chung, K. N. Noh, J. G.-H. Mun, J. Rhodes,Journal of neural engineering 2015 , 12, 056002.
[135] N. C. Klapoetke, Y. Murata, S. S. Kim, S. R. Pulver, A. Birdsey-Benson, Y. K. Cho, T. K. Morimoto, A. S. Chuong, E. J. Carpenter, Z. Tian, Nature methods 2014 , 11, 338.
[136] P. Mialhe, S. Mouhamed, A. Haydar, Renewable energy1991 , 1, 519.