FIGURE 8 (A) Miniaturised optoelectronic systems with wireless
RF-powered LEDs for optogenetics.
Reproduced with
permission.[39] Copyright 2015, Springer Nature.
(B) Flexible bioresorbable electronic stimulators for neuromuscular
regeneration with continuous wireless RF power. Reproduced with
permission.[24] Copyright 2020, Springer Nature.
(C) A thin and flexible optoelectronic implant for optogenetic
experiments self-powered by near-field wireless power transfer.
Reproduced with permission.[37] Copyright 2017,
Elsevier. (D) Smart contact lens for diabetic diagnosis and therapy with
near-field wireless power transfer and data communication. Reproduced
with permission.[126] Copyright 2020, Science. (E)
Non-invasive ultrasound-driven in vivo electrical stimulation for nerve
tissue repair monitoring. Reproduced with
permission.[41] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (F)
Ultraminiaturised wireless implants with infrared-to-visible
up-conversion devices as injectable light sources for optogenetic
neuromodulation. Reproduced with permission.[40]Copyright 2018, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
4. Conclusions and Perspectives
The past decades have witnessed
revolutionary changes in the field of IMEs owning to the surging demand
not only for the functional electrical therapy of chronic degenerative
diseases but also bio-signals for health care monitoring with high
fidelity and stability. The rapid development of ultraminiature
implantable electronics in recent years reveals the urgent demand for
minimally invasive power sources. Traditional bulky and rigid power
devices including primary batteries packaged in metal cases can no
longer satisfy the requirements of the state-of-the-art implantable
electronic system regarding flexibility, biocompatibility, durability,
lightweight and minimal invasion. As an overall conclusion of the recent
advances in miniaturised IMEs and power strategies for the system, this
review provides a comprehensive summary of the historical development of
implantable electronics and the applicable alternative miniaturised
power sources for the advanced miniaturised IMEs system with an outlook
for challenges in the future development. From the milestones in the
development history of implantable electronics, the tendency towards
minimizing the incision size and optimizing biocompatibility is obvious.
With the facilitation of the recent advanced technologies in
microfabrication technologies and biocompatible materials, IMEs system
will be developed towards non-invasive, ultra-flexible, bioresorbable,
wireless and multifunctional to therefore achieve painless implantation
and high-accuracy bio-functional monitoring. To discuss the applicable
minimally invasive power sources with different mechanisms for various
IMEs, three kinds of power sources including energy storage devices,
human body energy harvesters and
wireless power transfer were summarized. For the stable energy storage
devices, the biodegradability feature enables single-used primary
batteries to serve as a short-term stable power source for transient
bioelectronics with no need for surgical removal thanks to the fully
degradable and biocompatible materials, whereas the exploration of
controllable packaging methods and clear dissolution mechanisms still
need further study. Rechargeable batteries and supercapacitors with
one-dimensional fibre configuration are desirable for an injectable
bioelectronic system requiring sustainable long-term power sources due
to their good stability and rechargeability. In addition, human body
energy harvesters including PENG, TENG and biofuel cells as a permanent
energy source can be implanted once for all and support the IMEs to
finish the missions during the lifetime of the hosts, however, the
stability of continuous power supply and long-term safety inside the
body represents the main limitation for their long-term application.
Finally, wireless power transfer including near-field magnetic resonant
coupling, far-field RF radiation, PV power transfer and ultrasonic power
transfer can provide higher output power as a direct power source or
assistant external power source to charge the energy storage devices.
Through electromagnetic and acoustic waves, wireless power can be
transferred to avoid the limitations caused by tethers, but concerns of
safety issues brought by the exposure limit of the human body need
further consideration.
It is still challenging to realise the self-powered minimally invasive
IMEs with long-term stable functions through a service time reaching or
exceeding the human lifespan. The complex and integrated independent
system with power source management, biomedical functions and wireless
communication operating as a whole in the human body should be further
explored. With the advancement in these frontiers, it is promising to
achieve miniaturisation and multifunctional combination of minimally
invasive power sources driven IMEs system to realise pain-free health
monitor and biomedical treatment with high accuracy and fidelity in the
near future.
Acknowledgements
M.X. acknowledge support from the China Scholarship Council scholarship
(CSC, No.202006950020). Y.Z. and F.C. acknowledge support from the
National Measurement System of the UK Department of Business, Energy &
Industrial Strategy. K.Y. acknowledge support from the EPSRC New
Investigator Award (EP/V002260/1) and the Faraday Institute - Battery
Study and Seed Research Project (FIRG052). The icons in Figure 2 are
from ICON8. D.Y. and J.W acknowledge support from Key Program for
International S&T Cooperation Projects of Shaanxi Province
(2023-GHZD-26).
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