4.2 Behavioral Observation
Behavioral observations assess pain through the visual inspection of
patients’ responses or actions. These techniques are especially useful
for those who may have difficulty self-reporting their pain, such as
children124, the critically ill125,
sedated patients126, and individuals with cognitive
impairment127. Other pain-related behavioral findings
identified in the literature include changes in facial expressions,
affect, agitation, irritability, and the use of self-soothing or
distraction techniques128. For those with OUD, shifts
in behavior related to pain may include social withdrawal, which has
been identified as a potential consequence of chronic pain that may
contribute to worsening OUD symptoms129. However, the
literature specifically examining the role of these techniques in
assessing pain among persons with OUD is insipient.